![]() The results from this study, however, show that it is the phonological knowledge which links to performance on IELTS lending support to the idea that these learners are tied to phonological decoding. Generally, (e.g., Milton, Wade and Hopkins 2010) orthographic vocabulary size best predicts IELTS sub-scores in reading and writing, and the overall IELTS scores. These results are then compared with sub-scores in the IELTS test. This paper investigates this idea and tests 30 Arabic speaking learners using parallel vocabulary size tests in English which allow separate estimates of phonological and orthographic vocabulary size to be made. Phonological decoding of text will slow down reading speed and inhibit comprehension. They note that these learners often appear to recognise more English words by sound than by writing and speculate that learners may be tied to a phonological route to comprehension in reading. Milton and Riordan (2006) suggest that the structure of the lexicon itself among these learners may be a contributory factor to their poor reading skills. Low vocabulary size and poor reading skills among native Arabic speakers learning EFL is a feature of the literature on second language acquisition (e.g., Alsaif 2011). The study discusses implications for the explanatory power of aural vocabulary knowledge and working memory to listening comprehension and pedagogical practice in second language classrooms. The results show that aural vocabulary knowledge is the strongest predictor of listening comprehension, followed by working memory capacity, while written vocabulary knowledge contributes only marginally. Among 130 non-native speakers of English, the present study examines what proportion of the variance in listening comprehension is explained by aural vocabulary knowledge, written vocabulary knowledge, and working memory capacity. Since research in this area is relatively limited in comparison to that focusing on the relationship between reading comprehension and factors such as vocabulary knowledge and working memory, there is a need for studies that seek to fill the gap in our knowledge about the specific contribution of aural vocabulary knowledge, written vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity to explaining listening comprehension. Together, the results motivate further research into contributors to listening comprehension throughout the elementary years.Listening comprehension constitutes a considerable challenge for second language learners, but little is known about the relative contribution of individual differences in distinct factors to listening comprehension. Furthermore, the findings on general cognitive resources fit the pattern of mixed findings in previous research. They imply that the models could extend to evaluating broader student-related resources, such as academic self-efficacy. The findings relate to models of listening comprehension that state a dominant role for vocabulary, also in the upper elementary years. The indirect association between verbal short-term memory and listening comprehension through vocabulary just missed significance. Using bias-corrected bootstrap procedures, however, vocabulary appeared to mediate the association between academic self-efficacy and listening comprehension. Vocabulary, in turn, was positively associated with children's listening comprehension. ![]() The best-fitting model was an indirect model in which verbal short-term memory and self-efficacy were positively associated with children's vocabulary. ![]() Structural equation models were used to test for direct and indirect associations. The authors assessed oral text comprehension, as well as the concurrent contributors vocabulary, verbal short- and long-term memory, self-efficacy and concentration in a sample of 442 upper elementary school children (9- to 12-year-olds). The aim of this study was to explore whether vocabulary, verbal memory, but also self-efficacy and self-reported concentration contribute to listening comprehension. Listening comprehension is important for daily communication and at school, yet relatively little is known about the variables contributing to listening comprehension, especially in the upper elementary years. ![]()
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